Protein kinase A is a functional component of focal adhesions.

Focal adhesions (FAs) form the junction between extracellular matrix (ECM)-bound integrins and the actin cytoskeleton and also transmit signals that regulate cell adhesion, cytoskeletal dynamics, and cell migration. While many of these signals are rooted in reversible tyrosine phosphorylation, phosphorylation of FA proteins on Ser/Thr residues is far more abundant yet its mechanisms and consequences are far less understood. The cAMP-dependent protein kinase (protein kinase A; PKA) has important roles in cell adhesion and cell migration and is both an effector and regulator of integrin-mediated adhesion to the ECM. Importantly, subcellular localization plays a critically important role in specifying PKA function. Here, we show that PKA is present in isolated FA-cytoskeleton complexes and active within FAs in live cells. Furthermore, using kinase-catalyzed biotinylation of isolated FA-cytoskeleton complexes, we identify 53 high-stringency candidate PKA substrates within FAs. From this list, we validate tensin-3 (Tns3)-a well-established molecular scaffold, regulator of cell migration, and a component of focal and fibrillar adhesions-as a novel direct substrate for PKA. These observations identify a new pathway for phospho-regulation of Tns3 and, importantly, establish a new and important niche for localized PKA signaling and thus provide a foundation for further investigation of the role of PKA in the regulation of FA dynamics and signaling.

The focal adhesion protein talin is a mechanically gated A-kinase anchoring protein.

Protein kinase A (PKA) is a ubiquitous, promiscuous kinase whose activity is specified through subcellular localization mediated by A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs). PKA has complex roles as both an effector and a regulator of integrin-mediated cell adhesion to extracellular matrix (ECM). Recent observations demonstrate that PKA is an active component of focal adhesions (FA), suggesting the existence of one or more FA AKAPs. Using a promiscuous biotin ligase fused to PKA type-IIα regulatory (RIIα) subunits and subcellular fractionation, we identify the archetypal FA protein talin1 as an AKAP. Talin is a large, mechanosensitive scaffold that directly links integrins to actin filaments and promotes FA assembly by recruiting additional components in a force-dependent manner. The rod region of talin1 consists of 62 α-helices bundled into 13 rod domains, R1 to R13. Direct binding assays and NMR spectroscopy identify helix41 in the R9 subdomain of talin as the PKA binding site. PKA binding to helix41 requires unfolding of the R9 domain, which requires the linker region between R9 and R10. Experiments with single molecules and in cells manipulated to alter actomyosin contractility demonstrate that the PKA-talin interaction is regulated by mechanical force across the talin molecule. Finally, talin mutations that disrupt PKA binding also decrease levels of total and phosphorylated PKA RII subunits as well as phosphorylation of VASP, a known PKA substrate, within FA. These observations identify a mechanically gated anchoring protein for PKA, a force-dependent binding partner for talin1, and a potential pathway for adhesion-associated mechanotransduction.

Protein Kinase A is a Functional Component of Focal Adhesions.

Focal adhesions (FAs) form the junction between extracellular matrix (ECM)-bound integrins and the actin cytoskeleton and also transmit signals that regulate cell adhesion, cytoskeletal dynamics, and cell migration. While many of these signals are rooted in reversible tyrosine phosphorylation, phosphorylation of FA proteins on Ser/Thr residues is far more abundant yet its mechanisms and consequences are far less understood. The cAMP-dependent protein kinase (protein kinase A; PKA) has important roles in cell adhesion and cell migration and is both an effector and regulator of integrin-mediated adhesion to the ECM. Importantly, subcellular localization plays a critically important role in specifying PKA function. Here, we show that PKA is present in isolated FA-cytoskeleton complexes and active within FAs in live cells. Furthermore, using kinase-catalyzed biotinylation of isolated FA-cytoskeleton complexes, we identify fifty-three high-stringency candidate PKA substrates within FAs. From this list, we validate tensin-3 (Tns3) - a well-established molecular scaffold, regulator of cell migration, and component of focal and fibrillar adhesions - as a novel direct substrate for PKA. These observations identify a new pathway for phospho-regulation of Tns3 and, importantly, establish a new and important niche for localized PKA signaling and thus provide a foundation for further investigation of the role of PKA in the regulation of FA dynamics and signaling.

The focal adhesion protein talin is a mechanically-gated A-kinase anchoring protein (AKAP).

The cAMP-dependent protein kinase (Protein Kinase A; PKA) is a ubiquitous, promiscuous kinase whose activity is focused and specified through subcellular localization mediated by A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs). PKA has complex roles as both an effector and a regulator of integrin-mediated cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix (ECM). Recent observations demonstrate that PKA is an active component of focal adhesions (FA), intracellular complexes coupling ECM-bound integrins to the actin cytoskeleton, suggesting the existence of one or more FA AKAPs. Using a combination of a promiscuous biotin ligase fused to PKA type-IIα regulatory (RIIα) subunits and subcellular fractionation, we identify the archetypal FA protein talin1 as an AKAP. Talin is a large, mechanosensitive scaffold that directly links integrins to actin filaments and promotes FA assembly by recruiting additional components in a force-dependent manner. The rod region of talin1 consists of 62 α-helices bundled into 13 rod domains, R1-R13. Direct binding assays and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy identify helix41 in the R9 subdomain of talin as the PKA binding site. PKA binding to helix41 requires unfolding of the R9 domain, which requires the linker region between R9 and R10. Finally, single-molecule experiments with talin1 and PKA, and experiments in cells manipulated to alter actomyosin contractility demonstrate that the PKA-talin interaction is regulated by mechanical force across the talin molecule. These observations identify the first mechanically-gated anchoring protein for PKA, a new force-dependent binding partner for talin1, and thus a new mechanism for coupling cellular tension and signal transduction.

Protein Kinase A in cellular migration-Niche signaling of a ubiquitous kinase.

Cell migration requires establishment and maintenance of directional polarity, which in turn requires spatial heterogeneity in the regulation of protrusion, retraction, and adhesion. Thus, the signaling proteins that regulate these various structural processes must also be distinctly regulated in subcellular space. Protein Kinase A (PKA) is a ubiquitous serine/threonine kinase involved in innumerable cellular processes. In the context of cell migration, it has a paradoxical role in that global inhibition or activation of PKA inhibits migration. It follows, then, that the subcellular regulation of PKA is key to bringing its proper permissive and restrictive functions to the correct parts of the cell. Proper subcellular regulation of PKA controls not only when and where it is active but also specifies the targets for that activity, allowing the cell to use a single, promiscuous kinase to exert distinct functions within different subcellular niches to facilitate cell movement. In this way, understanding PKA signaling in migration is a study in context and in the elegant coordination of distinct functions of a single protein in a complex cellular process.

Protein kinase A activity is regulated by actomyosin contractility during cell migration and is required for durotaxis.

Dynamic subcellular regulation of protein kinase A (PKA) activity is important for the motile behavior of many cell types, yet the mechanisms governing PKA activity during cell migration remain largely unknown. The motility of SKOV-3 epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) cells has been shown to be dependent both on localized PKA activity and, more recently, on mechanical reciprocity between cellular tension and extracellular matrix rigidity. Here, we investigated the possibility that PKA is regulated by mechanical signaling during migration. We find that localized PKA activity in migrating cells rapidly decreases upon inhibition of actomyosin contractility (specifically, of myosin ATPase, Rho kinase, or myosin light-chain kinase activity). Moreover, PKA activity is spatially and temporally correlated with cellular traction forces in migrating cells. Additionally, PKA is rapidly and locally activated by mechanical stretch in an actomyosin contractility-dependent manner. Finally, inhibition of PKA activity inhibits mechanically guided migration, also known as durotaxis. These observations establish PKA as a locally regulated effector of cellular mechanotransduction and as a regulator of mechanically guided cell migration.

Single Cell Durotaxis Assay for Assessing Mechanical Control of Cellular Movement and Related Signaling Events.

Durotaxis is the process by which cells sense and respond to gradients of tension. In order to study this process in vitro, the stiffness of the substrate underlying a cell must be manipulated. While hydrogels with graded stiffness and long-term migration assays have proven useful in durotaxis studies, immediate, acute responses to local changes in substrate tension allow focused study of individual cell movements and subcellular signaling events. To repeatably test the ability of cells to sense and respond to the underlying substrate stiffness, a modified method for application of acute gradients of increased tension to individual cells cultured on deformable hydrogels is used which allows for real time manipulation of the strength and direction of stiffness gradients imparted upon cells in question. Additionally, by fine tuning the details and parameters of the assay, such as the shape and dimensions of the micropipette or the relative position, placement, and direction of the applied gradient, the assay can be optimized for the study of any mechanically sensitive cell type and system. These parameters can be altered to reliably change the applied stimulus and expand the functionality and versatility of the assay. This method allows examination of both long term durotactic movement as well as more immediate changes in cellular signaling and morphological dynamics in response to changing stiffness.

The mechanical microenvironment regulates ovarian cancer cell morphology, migration, and spheroid disaggregation.

There is growing appreciation of the importance of the mechanical properties of the tumor microenvironment on disease progression. However, the role of extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness and cellular mechanotransduction in epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is largely unknown. Here, we investigated the effect of substrate rigidity on various aspects of SKOV3 human EOC cell morphology and migration. Young's modulus values of normal mouse peritoneum, a principal target tissue for EOC metastasis, were determined by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and hydrogels were fabricated to mimic these values. We find that cell spreading, focal adhesion formation, myosin light chain phosphorylation, and cellular traction forces all increase on stiffer matrices. Substrate rigidity also positively regulates random cell migration and, importantly, directional increases in matrix tension promote SKOV3 cell durotaxis. Matrix rigidity also promotes nuclear translocation of YAP1, an oncogenic transcription factor associated with aggressive metastatic EOC. Furthermore, disaggregation of multicellular EOC spheroids, a behavior associated with dissemination and metastasis, is enhanced by matrix stiffness through a mechanotransduction pathway involving ROCK, actomyosin contractility, and FAK. Finally, this pattern of mechanosensitivity is maintained in highly metastatic SKOV3ip.1 cells. These results establish that the mechanical properties of the tumor microenvironment may play a role in EOC metastasis.

AMPK activity regulates trafficking of mitochondria to the leading edge during cell migration and matrix invasion.

Cell migration is a complex behavior involving many energy-expensive biochemical events that iteratively alter cell shape and location. Mitochondria, the principal producers of cellular ATP, are dynamic organelles that fuse, divide, and relocate to respond to cellular metabolic demands. Using ovarian cancer cells as a model, we show that mitochondria actively infiltrate leading edge lamellipodia, thereby increasing local mitochondrial mass and relative ATP concentration and supporting a localized reversal of the Warburg shift toward aerobic glycolysis. This correlates with increased pseudopodial activity of the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), a critically important cellular energy sensor and metabolic regulator. Furthermore, localized pharmacological activation of AMPK increases leading edge mitochondrial flux, ATP content, and cytoskeletal dynamics, whereas optogenetic inhibition of AMPK halts mitochondrial trafficking during both migration and the invasion of three-dimensional extracellular matrix. These observations indicate that AMPK couples local energy demands to subcellular targeting of mitochondria during cell migration and invasion.

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase dependent angiogenesis revealed by a bioengineered macrolide inhibitor.

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (AARSs) catalyze an early step in protein synthesis, but also regulate diverse physiological processes in animal cells. These include angiogenesis, and human threonyl-tRNA synthetase (TARS) represents a potent pro-angiogenic AARS. Angiogenesis stimulation can be blocked by the macrolide antibiotic borrelidin (BN), which exhibits a broad spectrum toxicity that has discouraged deeper investigation. Recently, a less toxic variant (BC194) was identified that potently inhibits angiogenesis. Employing biochemical, cell biological, and biophysical approaches, we demonstrate that the toxicity of BN and its derivatives is linked to its competition with the threonine substrate at the molecular level, which stimulates amino acid starvation and apoptosis. By separating toxicity from the inhibition of angiogenesis, a direct role for TARS in vascular development in the zebrafish could be demonstrated. Bioengineered natural products are thus useful tools in unmasking the cryptic functions of conventional enzymes in the regulation of complex processes in higher metazoans.

Anchoring of protein kinase A by ERM (ezrin-radixin-moesin) proteins is required for proper netrin signaling through DCC (deleted in colorectal cancer).

Netrin-1, acting through its principal receptor DCC (deleted in colorectal cancer), serves as an axon guidance cue during neural development and also contributes to vascular morphogenesis, epithelial migration, and the pathogenesis of some tumors. Several lines of evidence suggest that netrin-DCC signaling can regulate and be regulated by the cAMP-dependent protein kinase, PKA, although the molecular details of this relationship are poorly understood. Specificity in PKA signaling is often achieved through differential subcellular localization of the enzyme by interaction with protein kinase A anchoring proteins (AKAPs). Here, we show that AKAP function is required for DCC-mediated activation of PKA and phosphorylation of cytoskeletal regulatory proteins of the Mena/VASP (vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein) family. Moreover, we show that DCC and PKA physically interact and that this association is mediated by the ezrin-radixin-moesin (ERM) family of plasma membrane-actin cytoskeleton cross-linking proteins. Silencing of ERM protein expression inhibits DCC-PKA interaction, DCC-mediated PKA activation, and phosphorylation of Mena/VASP proteins as well as growth cone morphology and neurite outgrowth. Finally, although expression of wild-type radixin partially rescued growth cone morphology and tropism toward netrin in ERM-knockdown cells, expression of an AKAP-deficient mutant of radixin did not fully rescue growth cone morphology and switched netrin tropism from attraction to repulsion. These data support a model in which ERM-mediated anchoring of PKA activity to DCC is required for proper netrin/DCC-mediated signaling.

Cellular control of connective tissue matrix tension.

The biomechanical behavior of connective tissue in response to stretching is generally attributed to the molecular composition and organization of its extracellular matrix. It also is becoming apparent that fibroblasts play an active role in regulating connective tissue tension. In response to static stretching of the tissue, fibroblasts expand within minutes by actively remodeling their cytoskeleton. This dynamic change in fibroblast shape contributes to the drop in tissue tension that occurs during viscoelastic relaxation. We propose that this response of fibroblasts plays a role in regulating extracellular fluid flow into the tissue, and protects against swelling when the matrix is stretched. This article reviews the evidence supporting possible mechanisms underlying this response including autocrine purinergic signaling. We also discuss fibroblast regulation of connective tissue tension with respect to lymphatic flow, immune function, and cancer.

Stress and matrix-responsive cytoskeletal remodeling in fibroblasts.

In areolar "loose" connective tissue, fibroblasts remodel their cytoskeleton within minutes in response to static stretch resulting in increased cell body cross-sectional area that relaxes the tissue to a lower state of resting tension. It remains unknown whether the loosely arranged collagen matrix, characteristic of areolar connective tissue, is required for this cytoskeletal response to occur. The purpose of this study was to evaluate cytoskeletal remodeling of fibroblasts in, and dissociated from, areolar and dense connective tissue in response to 2 h of static stretch in both native tissue and collagen gels of varying crosslinking. Rheometric testing indicated that the areolar connective tissue had a lower dynamic modulus and was more viscous than the dense connective tissue. In response to stretch, cells within the more compliant areolar connective tissue adopted a large "sheet-like" morphology that was in contrast to the smaller dendritic morphology in the dense connective tissue. By adjusting the in vitro collagen crosslinking, and the resulting dynamic modulus, it was demonstrated that cells dissociated from dense connective tissue are capable of responding when seeded into a compliant matrix, while cells dissociated from areolar connective tissue can lose their ability to respond when their matrix becomes stiffer. This set of experiments indicated stretch-induced fibroblast expansion was dependent on the distinct matrix material properties of areolar connective tissues as opposed to the cells' tissue of origin. These results also suggest that disease and pathological processes with increased crosslinks, such as diabetes and fibrosis, could impair fibroblast responsiveness in connective tissues.

Live free or die: stretch-induced apoptosis occurs when adaptive reorientation of annulus fibrosus cells is restricted.

High matrix strains in the intervertebral disc occur during physiological motions and are amplified around structural defects in the annulus fibrosus (AF). It remains unknown if large matrix strains in the human AF result in localized cell death. This study investigated strain amplitudes and substrate conditions where AF cells were vulnerable to stretch-induced apoptosis. Human degenerated AF cells were subjected to 1 Hz-cyclic tensile strains for 24h on uniformly collagen coated substrates and on substrates with 40 µm stripes of collagen that restricted cellular reorientation. AF cells were capable of responding to stretch (stress fibers and focal adhesions aligned perpendicular to the direction of stretch), but were vulnerable to stretch-induced apoptosis when cytoskeletal reorientation was restricted, as could occur in degenerated states due to fibrosis and crosslink accumulation and at areas where high strains occur (around structural defects, delaminations, and herniations).

Direct modulation of the protein kinase A catalytic subunit α by growth factor receptor tyrosine kinases.

The cyclic-AMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) regulates processes such as cell proliferation and migration following activation of growth factor receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), yet the signaling mechanisms that link PKA with growth factor receptors remain largely undefined. Here we report that RTKs can directly modulate the function of the catalytic subunit of PKA (PKA-C) through post-translational modification. In vitro kinase assays revealed that both the epidermal growth factor and platelet derived growth factor receptors (EGFR and PDGFR, respectively) tyrosine phosphorylate PKA-C. Mass spectrometry identified tyrosine 330 (Y330) as a receptor-mediated phosphorylation site and mutation of Y330 to phenylalanine (Y330F) all but abolished the RTK-mediated phosphorylation of PKA-C in vitro. Y330 resides within a conserved region at the C-terminal tail of PKA-C that allosterically regulates enzymatic activity. Therefore, the effect of phosphorylation at Y330 on the activity of PKA-C was investigated. The K(m) for a peptide substrate was markedly decreased when PKA-C subunits were tyrosine phosphorylated by the receptors as compared to un-phosphorylated controls. Importantly, tyrosine-phosphorylated PKA-C subunits were detected in cells stimulated with EGF, PDGF, and Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) and in fibroblasts undergoing PDGF-mediated chemotaxis. These results demonstrate a direct, functional interaction between RTKs and PKA-C and identify tyrosine phosphorylation as a novel mechanism for regulating PKA activity.

Protein kinase A activity and anchoring are required for ovarian cancer cell migration and invasion.

Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is the deadliest of the gynecological malignancies, due in part to its clinically occult metastasis. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms governing EOC dissemination and invasion may provide new targets for antimetastatic therapies or new methods for detection of metastatic disease. The cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) is often dysregulated in EOC. Furthermore, PKA activity and subcellular localization by A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) are important regulators of cytoskeletal dynamics and cell migration. Thus, we sought to study the role of PKA and AKAP function in both EOC cell migration and invasion. Using the plasma membrane-directed PKA biosensor, pmAKAR3, and an improved migration/invasion assay, we show that PKA is activated at the leading edge of migrating SKOV-3 EOC cells, and that inhibition of PKA activity blocks SKOV-3 cell migration. Furthermore, we show that while the PKA activity within the leading edge of these cells is mediated by anchoring of type-II regulatory PKA subunits (RII), inhibition of anchoring of either RI or RII PKA subunits blocks cell migration. Importantly, we also show--for the first time--that PKA activity is up-regulated at the leading edge of SKOV-3 cells during invasion of a three-dimensional extracellular matrix and, as seen for migration, inhibition of either PKA activity or AKAP-mediated PKA anchoring blocks matrix invasion. These data are the first to demonstrate that the invasion of extracellular matrix by cancer cells elicits activation of PKA within the invasive leading edge and that both PKA activity and anchoring are required for matrix invasion. These observations suggest a role for PKA and AKAP activity in EOC metastasis.

Negative regulation of HIF-1α by an FBW7-mediated degradation pathway during hypoxia.

Hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) stimulates expression of genes associated with angiogenesis and is associated with poor outcomes in ovarian and other cancers. In normoxia, HIF-1α is ubiquitinated and degraded through the E3 ubiquitin ligase, von Hippel-Lindau; however, little is known about the regulation of HIF-1α in hypoxic conditions. FBW7 is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that recognizes proteins phosphorylated by glycogen synthase kinase 3ß (GSK3ß) and targets them for destruction. This study used an ovarian cancer cell model to test the hypothesis that HIF-1α phosphorylation by GSK3ß in hypoxia leads to interaction with FBW7 and ubiquitin-dependent degradation. Expression of constitutively active GSK3ß reduced HIF-1α protein and transcriptional activity and increased ubiquitination of HIF-1α in hypoxia, whereas pharmacologic inhibition of GSK3 or expression of siGSK3ß promoted HIF-1α stabilization and activity. A mechanism through FBW7 was supported by the observed decrease in HIF-1α stabilization when FBW7 was overexpressed and both the elevation of HIF-1α levels and decrease in ubiquitinated HIF-1α when FBW7 was suppressed. Furthermore, HIF-1α associated with FBW7γ by co-immunoprecipitation, and the interaction was weakened by inhibition of GSK3 or mutation of GSK3ß phosphorylation sites. The relevance of this pathway to angiogenic signaling was supported by the finding that endothelial cell tube maturation was increased by conditioned media from hypoxic SK-OV-3 cell lines expressing suppressed GSK3ß or FBW7. These data introduce a new mechanism for regulation of HIF-1α during hypoxia that utilizes phosphorylation to target HIF-1α for ubiquitin-dependent degradation through FBW7 and may identify new targets in the regulation of angiogenesis.

Cross-talk between calcium and protein kinase A in the regulation of cell migration.

Calcium (Ca(2+)) and the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) are pleiotropic cellular regulators and both exert powerful, diverse effects on cytoskeletal dynamics, cell adhesion, and cell migration. Localization, by A-kinase-anchoring proteins (AKAPs), of PKA activity to the protrusive leading edge, integrins, and other regulators of cytoskeletal dynamics has emerged as an important facet of its role in cell migration. Additional recent work has firmly established the importance of Ca(2+) influx through mechanosensitive transient receptor potential (TRP) channels and through store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE) in cell migration. Finally, there is considerable evidence showing that these mechanisms of Ca(2+) influx and PKA regulation intersect--and often interact--and thus may work in concert to translate complex extracellular cues into the intracellular biochemical anisotropy required for directional cell migration.

Fibroblast cytoskeletal remodeling contributes to connective tissue tension.

The visco-elastic behavior of connective tissue is generally attributed to the material properties of the extracellular matrix rather than cellular activity. We have previously shown that fibroblasts within areolar connective tissue exhibit dynamic cytoskeletal remodeling within minutes in response to tissue stretch ex vivo and in vivo. Here, we tested the hypothesis that fibroblasts, through this cytoskeletal remodeling, actively contribute to the visco-elastic behavior of the whole tissue. We measured significantly increased tissue tension when cellular function was broadly inhibited by sodium azide and when cytoskeletal dynamics were compromised by disrupting microtubules (with colchicine) or actomyosin contractility (via Rho kinase inhibition). These treatments led to a decrease in cell body cross-sectional area and cell field perimeter (obtained by joining the end of all of a fibroblast's processes). Suppressing lamellipodia formation by inhibiting Rac-1 decreased cell body cross-sectional area but did not affect cell field perimeter or tissue tension. Thus, by changing shape, fibroblasts can dynamically modulate the visco-elastic behavior of areolar connective tissue through Rho-dependent cytoskeletal mechanisms. These results have broad implications for our understanding of the dynamic interplay of forces between fibroblasts and their surrounding matrix, as well as for the neural, vascular, and immune cell populations residing within connective tissue.

Tissue stretch induces nuclear remodeling in connective tissue fibroblasts.

Studies in cultured cells have shown that nuclear shape is an important factor influencing nuclear function, and that mechanical forces applied to the cell can directly affect nuclear shape. In a previous study, we demonstrated that stretching of whole mouse subcutaneous tissue causes dynamic cytoskeletal remodeling with perinuclear redistribution of alpha-actin in fibroblasts within the tissue. We have further shown that the nuclei of these fibroblasts have deep invaginations containing alpha-actin. In the current study, we hypothesized that tissue stretch would cause nuclear remodeling with a reduced amount of nuclear invagination, measurable as a change in nuclear concavity. Subcutaneous areolar connective tissue samples were excised from 28 mice and randomized to either tissue stretch or no stretch for 30 min, then examined with histochemistry and confocal microscopy. In stretched tissue (vs. non-stretched), fibroblast nuclei had a larger cross-sectional area (P < 0.001), smaller thickness (P < 0.03) in the plane of the tissue, and smaller relative concavity (P < 0.005) indicating an increase in nuclear convexity. The stretch-induced loss of invaginations may have important influences on gene expression, RNA trafficking and/or cell differentiation.